Do we really have free will? Neuroscientist Robert Sapolsky leads a provocative argument into the complex realms of free will, determinism, and the implications for humanity's understanding of choice and responsibility.
In 1958, Jack Preiss and Philip Handler published a scientific paper describing how NAD+ was made from niacin in three steps.(1) This pathway was later named the Preiss-Handler pathway after the co-discoverers. It describes the enzyme steps needed to convert niacin into the NAD+ molecule.
The salvage pathway is used to produce NAD+ from nicotinamide molecules. Whether the source of the nicotinamide is vitamin B3 (as niacinamide), newer nicotinamides (e.g., nicotinamide riboside [NR], nicotinamide mononucleotide [NMN]), or molecules in food that get broken down during digestion into nicotinamide, the salvage pathway turns them into NAD+ in our tissues.
Most organisms have several alternatives for producing the NAD+ molecule. In humans, there are three major NAD+ biosynthesis pathways: the De Novo Pathway, starting from the essential amino acid L-tryptophan; the Preiss-Handler pathway, using niacin (nicotinic acid); and the Salvage Pathway from niacinamide (nicotinamide). In this article, we’ll be covering the De Novo Pathway.
Qualia nootropics were designed to promote a sustained improvement across the whole pallet of objective capacities and subjective states that contribute to optimized, creative, productive flow states. This goal required factoring many creative-productive capacities simultaneously.
Choosing the optimal dose for a given ingredient in our formulations is a critical and nuanced topic, so we want to share a bit about the principles that help guide our decisions at Qualia. Our principles derive from complexity science—the science of complex adaptive systems—and guide how we factor research and approach formulation and dosing. They take into consideration scientific evidence on the change in effect caused by differing levels of exposure (i.e., the dose-response relationship), but they do this in a way that honors complexity.
